WHY OPEN THE RULES

Historical sources

This packet gives the full historical fact notes, source types, locators and URLs for every evidence-key entry in the five real cases. Labels match the activity. Repeated labels are intentional because a label can have several supporting sources.

How to read a source note

Each note states the documented fact, identifies the kind of source, and gives a location within it. A public statement establishes a stated argument; a private conversation records what its participants said; a rule specifies formal authority; an observer report describes what observers could establish. None automatically settles every causal inference.

Coverage

Historical case	Period	Evidence notes
South Korea	1987-1988	8
Poland	1988-1991	8
South Africa	1990-1994	10
Ghana	1992-2001	10
Taiwan	1986-1996	10

Facts and interpretations

All facts needed for the activity appear in the game. Opening these external sources is optional. Branch responses, actor quotations labeled simulated, model challenges and the final Republic of Orvessa are invented possibilities. They are not historical evidence.

Historical explanations should distinguish recorded events and stated reasons from inferred motives and uncertain effects. The case numbers refer to different totals: valid votes, competitive seats or a party’s seats in a legislature. Keep each denominator attached to its claim.

Created by Yoav Duman. Public teaching edition, November 2026. Source notes and locators follow the evidence keys in the current activity.

HISTORICAL SOURCES 1 OF 2

South Korea

1987-1988. Source notes 1 to 4 of 8. Evidence labels match the game.

KR1 Source note 1

A contemporary U.S. report described rapid export growth, an educated urban population and a growing middle class while presidential competition remained restricted.

Source type: Contemporary government report
Source: U.S. Department of State, Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1987: Republic of Korea
Location: 1987 report, opening political and socioeconomic overview

https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1049505.html

KR2 Source note 2

Park Jong-chul died under police torture in January 1987. Chun stopped constitutional debate on April 13; Catholic priests exposed the cover-up in May.

Source type: Historical account
Source: Korea Democracy Foundation, 6·10 Movements
Location: 1987 chronology: Park’s death; April 13 announcement; May 18 disclosure

https://archives.kdemo.or.kr/display/en/move610.html

KR3 Source note 3

June protests included students, religious and opposition activists, office workers and industrial workers. Police repression continued as participation broadened.

Source type: Historical account
Source: Korea Democracy Foundation, 6·10 Movements
Location: June 10 Uprising and participation of workers sections

https://archives.kdemo.or.kr/display/en/move610.html

KR4 Source note 4

In his June 29 statement, Roh accepted direct elections and presented them as a way to overcome social disturbances and achieve reconciliation. This establishes his stated reason, not every private motive.

Source type: Public statement recorded by an embassy
Source: U.S. Embassy Seoul, Roh Tae Woo Calls for Direct Presidential Election - Text of Statement
Location: Cable Seoul 07642, June 29, 1987; PDF p. 4, first proposal

https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/public/digitallibrary/smof/nsc-asianaffairsdirectorate/kelly/r3/40-285-R3-055-2019.pdf

HISTORICAL SOURCES 2 OF 2

South Korea

1987-1988. Source notes 5 to 8 of 8. Evidence labels match the game.

KR5 Source note 5

Governing and opposition parties agreed on an amendment; voters approved it in the October 27, 1987 referendum. It restored direct presidential voting and a single five-year term.

Source type: Official historical account
Source: National Election Commission of Korea, The 6th National Referendum
Location: October 27, 1987; historical account of the amendment and referendum

https://museum.nec.go.kr/eng/eexh/eexh_1987.html

KR5 Source note 6

The revised constitution took full effect on February 25, 1988, after Chun accepted Roh’s proposals and the parties passed a bipartisan revision.

Source type: Contemporary government report
Source: U.S. Department of State, Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1987: Republic of Korea
Location: Opening overview: July 1 acceptance, October revision, February 25, 1988 effective date

https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/1049505.html

KR6 Source note 7

Roh won the December 16, 1987 election with 36.6%. The NEC also records opposition division, campaign violence and election-law violations. The activity calculates 63.4% for all other candidates as 100 - 36.6.

Source type: Official election record and historical account
Source: National Election Commission of Korea, The 13th Presidential Election
Location: December 16, 1987; result and campaign account; 36.6% is the NEC’s rounded figure

https://museum.nec.go.kr/eng/eexh/eexh_1987_12_16.html

KR6 Source note 8

The NEC-commissioned historical overview describes Roh’s rounded 36.6% as a share of valid votes. This category excludes invalid ballots; it is not a share of registered voters or the population.

Source type: NEC-commissioned retrospective report
Source: Election Museum Basic Plan, NEC-commissioned report (2010, Korean)
Location: Historical overview, 1987 presidential election section; paragraph using 유효투표수 (valid votes)

https://m.nec.go.kr/files/nec_lab/outstudy/00102_01.pdf

Additional historical links in the game

National Election Commission of Korea: 1987 presidential election

HISTORICAL SOURCES 1 OF 2

Poland

1988-1991. Source notes 1 to 4 of 8. Evidence labels match the game.

PL1 Source note 1

Gdańsk strikers’ May and August 1988 demands combined higher wages or compensation for price rises with legal Solidarity, association rights and protection from reprisals.

Source type: Reproduced strike demands
Source: NSZZ Solidarność, Gdańsk Region, Strike demands and committees
Location: Reproduced Gdańsk Shipyard demand lists for May and August 1988

https://solidarnosc.gda.pl/historia/postulaty-i-komitety-strajkowe-1980-i-1988-r-gdansk/

PL2 Source note 2

Czyrek described worsening economic conditions and a strategy of involving opposition figures willing to negotiate, seeking their support for reforms. The record shows a governing tactic, rather than a plan to surrender every office.

Source type: Private conversation record
Source: Gorbachev Foundation archive, Record of Gorbachev-Czyrek conversation
Location: September 23, 1988; PDF pp. 3 and 6, economic crisis and negotiating tactic

https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB504/docs/1988.09.23%20Memorandum%20of%20Conversation%20between%20Gorbachev%20and%20Czyrek.pdf

PL3 Source note 3

The Polish leadership had chosen talks before this meeting. Gorbachev supported its approach and Polish decision making; he did not guarantee every later Soviet response.

Source type: Private conversation record and editors’ introduction
Source: Gorbachev-Czyrek memorandum, National Security Archive edition
Location: September 23, 1988; archival introduction and memorandum PDF pp. 10-11

https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/document/28338-document-18-memorandum-conversation-between-gorbachev-and-polish-politburo-member

PL4 Source note 4

The Round Table settlement restored the Senate in 1989. The April 7 constitutional amendment implemented it; there was no functioning Senate at the start of the 1988 crisis.

Source type: Official historical account
Source: Senate of Poland, Senate since 1989
Location: First free elections section; February 6-April 5 talks and April 7, 1989 amendment

https://senat.edu.pl/historia-senatu-rp/senat-rp-po-1989-r/

HISTORICAL SOURCES 2 OF 2

Poland

1988-1991. Source notes 5 to 8 of 8. Evidence labels match the game.

PL4 Source note 5

The 1989 bargain legalized Solidarity, opened every Senate seat, and reserved 65% of the 460 Sejm seats for rulers and allies. The remaining 161 seats were 35% of the Sejm: a seat share, not a vote share.

Source type: Inter-parliamentary election report
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, Poland Sejm election 1989
Location: April 5, 1989 accords; Background and outcome of elections; seat distribution

https://data.ipu.org/election-summary/HTML/2255_89.htm

PL5 Source note 6

Solidarity-backed candidates won all 161 open Sejm seats and 99 of 100 Senate seats across the June 1989 voting rounds. These results did not give Solidarity alone a Sejm majority.

Source type: Official historical account
Source: Senate of Poland, Senate since 1989
Location: First free elections section, June 4 and June 18, 1989 results

https://senat.edu.pl/historia-senatu-rp/senat-rp-po-1989-r/

PL5 Source note 7

Former ruling-bloc allies ZSL and SD supported a Solidarity-led coalition. Mazowiecki became prime minister in August; the September cabinet included Solidarity and communist ministers. Reserved seats did not require continued coalition loyalty.

Source type: Official retrospective chronology
Source: President of Poland, 1989: Break-Through Year
Location: Chronology entries for August 7, August 24 and September 12, 1989

https://www.president.pl/archives/bronislaw-komorowski/freedom-day/1989

PL6 Source note 8

The October 27, 1991 parliamentary election opened all seats to contenders, unlike the limited competition agreed in 1989.

Source type: Inter-parliamentary election report
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, Poland Sejm election 1991
Location: Background and outcome of elections, first paragraph

https://data.ipu.org/election-summary/HTML/2255_91.htm

Additional historical links in the game

Gorbachev-Czyrek conversation memorandum, September 23, 1988

HISTORICAL SOURCES 1 OF 3

South Africa

1990-1994. Source notes 1 to 4 of 10. Evidence labels match the game.

SA1 Source note 1

Black South Africans were excluded from the 1989 national parliamentary vote, while the National Party remained the governing party.

Source type: Contemporary civil-society report
Source: South African Institute of Race Relations, Survey 1988/89
Location: Overview, Introduction, discussion of the September 6, 1989 election

https://sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/SAIRR%20Survey%201988-89.pdf

SA1 Source note 2

The ANC was banned in April 1960. Mandela remained imprisoned until his release on February 11, 1990.

Source type: Historical chronology
Source: Nelson Mandela Foundation, Trials and prisons chronology
Location: Entries for April 8, 1960 and February 11, 1990

https://www.nelsonmandela.org/trials-and-prison-chronology

SA2 Source note 3

Trade unions and the Mass Democratic Movement organized stayaways and a defiance campaign around the 1989 election; police responses included repression.

Source type: Contemporary civil-society report
Source: South African Institute of Race Relations, Survey 1988/89
Location: Overview, Introduction, election stayaways and defiance campaign

https://sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/SAIRR%20Survey%201988-89.pdf

SA2 Source note 4

The UN Security Council urged member states to take economic and cultural measures against South Africa. This documents outside pressure without measuring its separate causal effect.

Source type: International resolution
Source: United Nations Security Council, Resolution 569 (1985)
Location: July 26, 1985, operative provisions on economic and cultural measures

https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/87856/

HISTORICAL SOURCES 2 OF 3

South Africa

1990-1994. Source notes 5 to 7 of 10. Evidence labels match the game.

SA3 Source note 5

On February 2, 1990, de Klerk announced the unbanning of the ANC and other organizations. He presented negotiation as an alternative to conflict and Soviet changes as reducing security threats. These are his public arguments.

Source type: Public statement
Source: F. W. de Klerk, Address at the opening of Parliament
Location: February 2, 1990, opening paragraphs and section on unbanning organizations

https://www.gov.za/news/address-state-president-mr-fw-de-klerk-dms-opening-second-session-ninth-parliament-republic

SA4 Source note 6

The ANC suspended negotiations in June 1992 after the Boipatong killings while still declaring support for a negotiated settlement. The statement’s allegations of responsibility are the ANC’s claims.

Source type: Party public statement
Source: ANC National Executive Committee, Emergency meeting statement
Location: June 23, 1992, opening statement and Negotiations section

https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/index.php/site/q/03lv02039/04lv02133/05lv02139/06lv02145.htm

SA4 Source note 7

The government and ANC agreed in September 1992 on an elected constitution-making body and an interim government of national unity, alongside prisoner and safety issues.

Source type: Negotiated agreement
Source: Government of South Africa and ANC, Record of Understanding
Location: September 26, 1992, paragraphs 2(a)-2(d)

https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/index.php/site/q/03lv02039/04lv02046/05lv02092/06lv02096.htm

HISTORICAL SOURCES 3 OF 3

South Africa

1990-1994. Source notes 8 to 10 of 10. Evidence labels match the game.

SA5 Source note 8

The interim Constitution provided adult voting without racial exclusion and protected basic rights. Parties with at least 20 Assembly seats could choose to join government and obtain cabinet portfolios.

Source type: Constitutional rule
Source: Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 200 of 1993
Location: Sections 6, 8, 21 and 88(2); commencement April 27, 1994

https://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/constitution-republic-south-africa-act-200-1993-repealed-28-jan-1994

SA5 Source note 9

Cabinet entitlements were transitional rather than a permanent racial veto. The final Constitution continued special national executive arrangements until April 30, 1999.

Source type: Constitutional rule
Source: Constitution of South Africa, 1996, Schedule 6
Location: Item 9, National Executive; Annexure B, Government of National Unity

https://www.gov.za/documents/notices/constitution-republic-south-africa-1996-schedule-6-transitional-arrangements-07

SA6 Source note 10

In 1994 the ANC won 252 of 400 Assembly seats, the National Party 82 and the IFP 43. The National Assembly elected Mandela president and all three parties entered the cabinet. Each exceeded the 20-seat cabinet threshold separately.

Source type: Inter-parliamentary election report
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, South Africa National Assembly election 1994
Location: April 26-29, 1994; seat distribution and May government-formation account; seat totals only

https://data.ipu.org/election-summary/HTML/2291_94.htm

Additional historical links in the game

South Africa: 1993 interim Constitution, section 88

HISTORICAL SOURCES 1 OF 3

Ghana

1992-2001. Source notes 1 to 4 of 10. Evidence labels match the game.

GH1 Source note 1

The 1992 transition included an April constitutional referendum and the lifting of the party ban in May. Government and opposition disputed how quickly organizing should be allowed.

Source type: Inter-parliamentary election report
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, Ghana parliamentary election 1992
Location: Background and outcome, March-May 1992 timetable

https://data.ipu.org/election-summary/HTML/2123_92.htm

GH1 Source note 2

Voters adopted the constitution by referendum in April 1992. It took effect on January 7, 1993, after the 1992 presidential and parliamentary elections; the 1996 elections were the first held under it.

Source type: Election observer report
Source: Commonwealth Observer Group, Ghana 1996 election report
Location: Electoral Framework chapter, printed p. 7, The Constitution

https://thecommonwealth.org/publications/presidential-and-parliamentary-elections-ghana-7-december-1996

GH2 Source note 3

Rawlings won the 1992 presidential election; major opposition parties disputed it and boycotted the later parliamentary election. They returned to competition in 1996 despite continuing concerns.

Source type: Election observer report
Source: Commonwealth Observer Group, Ghana 1996 election report
Location: Political Background chapter, printed pp. 3-5; avoid its inconsistent historical turnout figures

https://thecommonwealth.org/publications/presidential-and-parliamentary-elections-ghana-7-december-1996

GH3 Source note 4

Carter observers reported a flawed register and inconsistent identification. They did not observe a systematic pattern showing rigging, but could not determine whether the allegations were true. Their observation does not prove that no fraud occurred.

Source type: Contemporary observer report
Source: Carter Center, Ghana Election Mission report
Location: Executive Summary, November 6, 1992, paragraph on irregularities and allegations

https://www.cartercenter.org/publication/final-report-ghana-1992/

HISTORICAL SOURCES 2 OF 3

Ghana

1992-2001. Source notes 5 to 7 of 10. Evidence labels match the game.

GH4 Source note 5

The Constitution protects the Electoral Commission from another person’s or authority’s direction or control, subject to the Constitution. A legal safeguard alone does not establish impartial conduct.

Source type: Constitutional rule
Source: Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, 1992
Location: Article 46, Independence of the Commission; PDF p. 49

https://osp.gov.gh/media/Resources/Ghana_Constitution.pdf

GH5 Source note 6

The commission rebuilt the register in 1995, displayed it for voter and party checks, supplied parties copies, introduced transparent boxes and held regular inter-party meetings. The sequence does not isolate which reform caused opposition participation.

Source type: Election observer report
Source: Commonwealth Observer Group, Ghana 1996 election report
Location: Electoral Framework chapter, printed pp. 8-9 and 13-14: Voter Registration and Other Innovations

https://thecommonwealth.org/publications/presidential-and-parliamentary-elections-ghana-7-december-1996

GH6 Source note 7

The Constitution bars a person from being elected president for more than two terms. This is an eligibility rule, separate from procedures for registering voters or counting ballots.

Source type: Constitutional rule
Source: Constitution of the Republic of Ghana, 1992
Location: Article 66(2), Term of Office of President; PDF p. 57

https://osp.gov.gh/media/Resources/Ghana_Constitution.pdf

HISTORICAL SOURCES 3 OF 3

Ghana

1992-2001. Source notes 8 to 10 of 10. Evidence labels match the game.

GH6 Source note 8

The Electoral Commission declared Kufuor president-elect after he won more than half of valid votes in the December 28, 2000 runoff.

Source type: Official result declaration
Source: Electoral Commission of Ghana, Declaration of President-elect Instrument 2000, C.I. 32
Location: Signed December 30, 2000; Gazette notification January 5, 2001

https://judicial.gov.gh/jsweb/index.php/jsg-services/libraryservices/statute-on-elections/377-declaration-of-president-elect-instrument-2000-ci-32

GH6 Source note 9

Kufuor received 3,631,263 of 6,381,387 valid runoff votes, or 56.90%; Mills received 43.10%. The denominator excludes invalid votes and people who did not vote.

Source type: Election results database
Source: IFES ElectionGuide, Ghanaian Presidency 2000 Round 2
Location: December 28, 2000, Results table; valid votes and vote share by candidate

https://www.electionguide.org/elections/id/1833/

GH6 Source note 10

Rawlings could not seek another elected term; Mills stood for the governing party. Kufuor took office on January 7, 2001.

Source type: Inter-parliamentary election report
Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union, Ghana parliamentary election 2000
Location: Background and outcome: term limit, presidential succession and January 7 inauguration; presidential percentages not used

https://data.ipu.org/election-summary/HTML/2123_00.htm

Additional historical links in the game

Constitution of Ghana: Articles 46 and 66

Ghana Electoral Commission: institutional overview

HISTORICAL SOURCES 1 OF 3

Taiwan

1986-1996. Source notes 1 to 4 of 10. Evidence labels match the game.

TW1 Source note 1

Government infrastructure and economic development expanded in the 1970s; martial law continued until July 1987. Growth therefore preceded the removal of this restriction.

Source type: Official retrospective
Source: Office of the President, Taiwan, Chiang Ching-kuo timeline
Location: 1972-1978 and 1978-1988 entries; July 14, 1987 announcement

https://english.president.gov.tw/Page/85

TW1 Source note 2

Local elections occurred under martial law; the first direct presidential election came in 1996. These were different electoral rules.

Source type: Official election chronology
Source: Taiwan Central Election Commission, Election History
Location: Election Chronicles: 1949 martial law; 1950-1951 local elections; March 23, 1996

https://web.cec.gov.tw/english/article/24

TW2 Source note 3

Opposition candidates had run as independents. The DPP formed despite the party ban in 1986, and authorities allowed it to operate.

Source type: Government retrospective
Source: U.S. Department of State, Taiwan Background Note
Location: December 2005, Political Conditions section

https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/taiwan/52710.htm

TW2 Source note 4

Taiwan’s 1980s civic movements included campaigns for press freedom and labor rights as well as democratic reform.

Source type: Public retrospective account
Source: Office of the President, Taiwan’s Vibrant Democracy, Moving Forward with the World
Location: Paragraphs describing 1980s civil society and its range of demands

https://www.president.gov.tw/qrcode/19e

HISTORICAL SOURCES 2 OF 3

Taiwan

1986-1996. Source notes 5 to 7 of 10. Evidence labels match the game.

TW3 Source note 5

Chiang Ching-kuo convened the KMT Central Standing Committee on October 15, 1986; it reached agreement on a national security law and establishment of new civic entities.

Source type: Official retrospective
Source: Office of the President, Taiwan, Chiang Ching-kuo timeline
Location: Personal timeline, October 15, 1986

https://english.president.gov.tw/Page/85

TW4 Source note 6

Chiang announced that martial law would end on July 15, 1987, when the National Security Law would also take effect.

Source type: Official retrospective
Source: Office of the President, Taiwan, Chiang Ching-kuo timeline
Location: Personal timeline, July 1 and July 14, 1987

https://english.president.gov.tw/Page/85

TW4 Source note 7

Chiang Ching-kuo died on January 13, 1988; Lee Teng-hui succeeded him as president that day. The official timeline records further constitutional reforms beginning in 1990.

Source type: Official retrospective
Source: Office of the President, Taiwan, Lee Teng-hui timeline
Location: January 13, 1988 succession; Presidency (democratic reforms), 1990s

https://english.president.gov.tw/Page/86

HISTORICAL SOURCES 3 OF 3

Taiwan

1986-1996. Source notes 8 to 10 of 10. Evidence labels match the game.

TW4 Source note 8

A January 27, 1989 law provided the route for previously formed parties to register and obtain legal party status. Toleration and legal recognition were separate steps.

Source type: Court judgment about earlier law
Source: Constitutional Court of Taiwan, Judgment No. 793
Location: August 28, 2020 judgment, paragraph 45 on the 1989 civil associations law

https://cons.judicial.gov.tw/en/docdata.aspx?fid=100&id=310974

TW5 Source note 9

Full elections were held for the National Assembly on December 21, 1991 and Legislative Yuan on December 19, 1992.

Source type: Official election chronology
Source: Taiwan Central Election Commission, Election History
Location: Election Chronicles, December 21, 1991 and December 19, 1992

https://web.cec.gov.tw/english/article/24

TW6 Source note 10

Citizens directly elected the president on March 23, 1996. KMT candidate Lee Teng-hui received 5,813,699 votes, or 54.00% of votes counted for candidates. This does not establish his party’s expectations in 1986.

Source type: Official election results
Source: Taiwan Central Election Commission, 1996 Presidential and Vice Presidential Election
Location: March 23, 1996 results table, Lee Teng-hui row

https://web.cec.gov.tw/english/article/21785

Additional historical links in the game

Taiwan Central Election Commission: 1996 presidential election results